Analysis of Penalty Kick in Rugby

 -Biomechanical 

Biomechanical analysis of the Penalty kick in Rugby Preparatory phase/wind-up "During a rugby union game, place kicking for maximal resultant ball velocity is often desirable. Similar to soccer instep kicks, place kicks in rugby involve a series of motions that include an initial address to the ball, planting of the support leg beside the ball, and striking of the ball with the instep of the kicking foot"
(Barfield et. al., 2002; Isokawa and Lees, 1988) While the basic pattern of a place kick is similar to the instep soccer kick, the differences of the ball shape, tee support, and release angles make the rugby place kicking technique unique. Three components of qualitative analysis: Dan and Caoimhin are left footed kickers, so note that they approach the ball at an angle from the right.
The reason for this angled approach is to open up the hips allowing for increased hyper-extension creating a larger back swing and as well an increased abduction of the legs. 

Notice that Carter is closer to ground = lower center of gravity which aids dynamic balance and control for a more accurate penalty kick After analysing Carter’s kick we can see that he takes a few steps back and another few to his right to give him a good angle to approach the kick.
By taking fewer steps also reduces the possibility of not being in exactly the right position to take the kick. 2) Wind-up/backswing During the back swing phase, flexion at the hip and knee are the most important contributors while the linear velocities of the pelvis and pelvis rotation cause a negative contribution to the total speed. For this study, a clear picture of the kinematic chain of the rugby kick can be represented by following steps. In the final step, the kicking leg generates back swing: the farther back the leg is, the more force and leg speed can be potentially generated; then, the thigh moves forward followed by the passive movement of the shank through the knee; finally, the shank extends to yield the maximum speed right as the instep contacts the ball while the thigh decelerates. As the major contributor to knee extension, the quadriceps would generate high intensity forces. Therefore, from a biomechanical point of view, the strength training for knee muscle groups may be of particular importance for rugby players, not only for performance enhancement, but also for injury prevention during kicking. 2) Wind-up/Force producing 

movements Dan plants his right foot just adjacent to the ball. If he placed this standing leg behind the ball it would force his kicking foot further under the ball forcing the ball higher in to the air but getting less distance. Alternatively if he overran the ball, placing his support leg past the ball he would not be able to swing his leg through and get under the ball sufficiently to get the distance required. His hips, leg and foot kick through the ball in sequence. His hips rotate through toward the target first and his knee is left bent behind. 

The knee then straightens out and brings the foot through the ball toward the target. He keeps his head down over the ball as he kicks. Keeping your head down looking at the ball ensures that you are balanced for the kick and that you strike the ball cleanly. 3) Follow through In this picture you can see that Carter rolls over his support ankle during the follow through. This happens because of his angle of approach toward the ball, allows him to get a bigger swing at the ball. Although this looks dangerous, the roll is forced by his follow through when most of his weight has been lifted from the support leg. You will see that some kickers look like their support leg is lifting into the air, rather than rolling, with the force of the follow through. Biomechanical studies regarding rugby union place-kicking techniques are very limited. A two-dimensional analysis by Aitcheson and Lees (1983) found that 'two-stage acceleration' of the lower leg is yielded. The first stage is due to the lower leg falling against gravity and the second stage is due to the interaction between the upper and lower leg segments. Bezodis et. al., (2007) investigated non-kicking-side arm motion during rugby place kicking. They found that the longitudinal angular momentum of the non-kicking-side arm can increase accuracy in maximum distance kicking. By: Eoin McArdle (C)
Marie Daly (VC)
Orla Donaldson
Ryan Lynch About the Penalty Kick Definition of Biomechanics “Biomechanics is the science associated with internal forces, mainly the muscle contractions, and also the external forces which act upon the body and the subsequent effects produced by these forces”.
Hall (1991) When is it rewarded? Closed skill Position of Standing leg is different

Head position is similar Caoimhin = 70 degrees Dan Carter = 45 degrees This phase is referred to as the wind up or back swing. This is the phase where the force producing movements occur in order to generate as much force and accuracy before the body comes into contact with the ball.

In this kicking action below, although the whole body is involved, the majority of power and strength is generated from the left leg as this is Dan Carter’s preferred foot. Due to speed and power generated during the kicking movement of the elite performer the follow through came natural and he was able to control his movements to stop.
In comparison Caoimhin did follow through, however he did not display control or balance, illustrating poor technique which could result in a missed penalty shot. How to Improve Performance Rugby is a sport which involves strength and effective training and drills Strengthening muscles in the lower body and core muscles Effective training and drills - start from close in to goals and as you get more confident and perfect your technique then move further away from goals Skill and tactics are more important than sheer size and strength Main Techniques to remember Place non-kicking foot beside the ball Keeping your head down Transferring your weight; through your hips through the ball Use your hands/arms to aid balance Less steps in the preparatory phase will minimise chance of error Hip, quadriceps and hamstring flexibility are important in gaining maximum velocity In summary, from a kinematic point of view, the velocity of the kicking foot is not only dependent upon the most distal segments, but also on other proximal segments. It has been generally recognised that place ball kicking is a combination of segmental and joint rotations in multiple planes following a proximal to distal sequence to achieve maximal foot velocity, which results in maximal ball release speed

HOW MANY HOURS YOU NEED TO SLEEP ACCORDING TO YOUR AGE?

The time flies fast and we are getting old day by day. However, we have to live every day in full speed and attain more in our lives. We are not able to do that without getting some sleep.Sleeping is very important for every vital function of your body and mind.The amount and quality of sleep we get determine how well we will do through the day and how productive we will be.

Every person needs a quality sleep, especially for those who are experiencing chronic diseases and pain management problems.

There is one question that worries us when it comes to sleeping, and that is: “How many hours I need to sleep if I am old?”

The answer is different for everyone. Someone sleeps 4 hours a night and still can accomplish the tasks through the day successfully.

According to one article, successful people need only 6 hours of sleep to function 110%.

HOW MUCH DO YOU SLEEP?

This is an infographic that has been revealed by the National Institute of Sleep. It shows how much sleep do we really need. Remember that this is the total sleep you get during a 24-hour period. If you took a 30-minute nap, that counts, too!

Look at the infographic and see if you are getting enough or less sleep.Did this show that you are а sleep deficient?

The most common symptoms in sleep deficient people:

• Not as productive during the day
• Overweight or gaining weight
• Caffeine is needed to live through the day
• Sleepy when driving

Here is another question, how to prepare yourself for a good night’s sleep? The best thing is to read a book before going to bed. That is what you need. Other things that you can do are:

• Stay within your schedule
• Develop a bedtime routine
• Exercise every day
• Make sure your mattress and pillow suits you
• Turn off the TV
• Avoid alcohol or caffeine before bedtime

Silent Killers: They Kill 100,000 People Annually and Everyone Uses Them

Every year, there are thousands of people who die as result of the pollution in their home. In most cases this happens because they are not even aware of it.

According to the researches, the air fresheners and cleaning supplies are silent killers in the households, schools, and offices. The last report that was published this week, says that these silent killers have caused 99,000 deaths in Europe.

This report warns people that the bad quality of the air in closed rooms is result of various household items, defective heaters, sprays, and air fresheners. These items, and additionally the cosmetic products, are considered to be the most dangerous pollutants due to the fact that contain liquid chemicals which evaporate very easily.

Besides the products mentioned above, this list includes includes certain furniture, fiber, and glue containing evaporating formaldehyde which irritates the respiratory tract and the lungs.

According to statistical data, formaldehyde is used in more than 3,000 products, which are widely used in our homes. This list includes air fresheners, cosmetic products, plastics etc.

Biological materials, such as dust, mold, and animal hair are the other substances which are likely to negatively affect the human health. All these substances can be found in our homes.

Eminent British Health Organizations such as Royal College of Physicians (RCP) и Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH), conducted this experiment and published this report.

The best ways to manage pollution in your home is better isolation and ventilation.

In the report of these Organizations: “The home pollution can negatively affect the development of the fetus, especially the lungs and kidneys. It can also cause abortion and stroke in elderly people, and it is also associated with asthma, dementia, obesity, and cancer”.

SEE THE AMAZING 5 REASONS WHY YOU NEED TO DRINK MORE FRESH, YOUNG COCONUT WATER!!!

Coconut water has grown in popularity in recent years, gaining traction as an alternative to sugary sports drinks due to their highly nutritional content.

While not all coconut waters are created equal, fresh, young coconut water is great for numerous health purposes.

So much so that recent studies have affirmed the usefulness of coconut water as a nutritional supplement.

Here are just a few health benefits that coconut water offers:

1. Hangover Remedy

Because it’s so excellent for rehydration, coconut water makes a great hangover cure. This drink can help with nausea, and replenish the electrolytes you lose after a crazy night of partying and alcohol.

2. Sports Drink

Similarly, coconut water can help rehydrate you when you lose fluids due to heavy exercising.

“COCONUT WATER WAS SIGNIFICANTLY SWEETER, CAUSED LESS NAUSEA, FULLNESS, AND NO STOMACH UPSET AND WAS ALSO EASIER TO CONSUME IN A LARGER AMOUNT COMPARED WITH CEB [CARBOHYDRATE-ELECTROLYTE BEVERAGE] AND PW [PLAIN WATER] INGESTION,” ONE STUDY EXPLAINS (1).

“IN CONCLUSION, INGESTION OF FRESH YOUNG COCONUT WATER, A NATURAL REFRESHING BEVERAGE, COULD BE USED FOR WHOLE BODY REHYDRATION AND EXERCISE.”

3. CONTROLLING HYPERTENSION

Coconut water has been shown to help systolic blood pressure in hypertensive patients  and in animal models as well.

“THE OVERALL RESULTS SUGGEST THAT TENDER COCONUT WATER TREATMENT COULD PREVENT AND REVERSE HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE INDUCED BY HIGH FRUCTOSE DIET, PROBABLY BY INHIBITION OF LIPID PEROXIDATION, UPREGULATION OF ANTIOXIDANT STATUS AND IMPROVED INSULIN SENSITIVITY,” ONE STUDY STATED.

4. WEIGHT LOSS AND CHOLESTEROL MANAGEMENT

Coconut water’s effects on lipid profiles have been studied in animal models as early as 2006, according to one study which found that tender coconut water, or TCW, could lower cholesterol rates and improve the lipid profiles of cholesterol-fed male rats (4). It can also help curb sugar cravings

5. DIGESTIVE AID

Coconut water contains dietary fiber, which aids digestion and helps prevent heartburn, or acid reflux. The bioactive enzymes contained in coconut water also helps ease constipation by acting as a gentle, natural laxative, and support the digestive system in eliminating waste..

Nutritious, non-carbonated and sterile at its source, coconut water is a great source of B-complex vitamins, such as niacin, thiamin, riboflavin, and folates, and is also rich in valuable minerals which boost its hydrating effects.

If you’re looking for something that has similar effects to a carbohydrate-electrolyte infused sports drink – but without all the sugar, corn syrup, and artificial flavoring – coconut water may be the drink for you!Look for it at local Asian markets, health food stores, or high end grocery stores

Functional Gold Nanorods: Synthesis,

 Self-Assembly,and Sensing Applications

The fascinating size-dependent properties of noble metal nanoparticleshave created a great promise for their use in a varietyof electronic, optical, and biomedical applications. Gold nanorods,specifi cally, have received a great deal of attention dueto their unusual physical properties. The nanoscale confi nementof electrons on the surface of gold nanoparticles grantsthem shape- and size-dependent properties not seen in largerparticles.  Initially, spherical or quasi-spherical gold nanoparticlesreceived the most attention due to the ease of synthesisof such structures. This is perhaps unsurprising giventhat the spherical shape is often the most thermodynamicallyand kinetically favorable morphology. In order to access morecomplicated structures, it is necessary to fi nd reaction conditionswhich can break the propensity towards isotropic growthand instead direct the nanoparticle growth into an anisotropicdimension. The fi rst class of anisotropic nanoparticles to gainthe most popularity has been gold nanorods, which were fi rstsynthesized in the mid-1990s through anapproach based on electrochemical reductioninto rod-shaped templates.  Due tothe limitations of this technique such asthe low total yield of the procedure, morewidespread adoption of gold nanorods intoresearch did not occur until the advent ofwet-chemistry synthetic techniques, whichdid not appear until Murphy and coworkers’seminal work published in 2001. Continued improvements in syntheticmethodology have led to better reliabilityand have increased the shape-yield of rodsto greater than 90 percent.As synthetic capabilities improved, sodid the understanding of the physicalproperties of nanorods including their anisotropicoptical and electronic properties.Excellent reviews have been publishedthat describe the origins and modelingof the physical properties of gold nanorodsand so will not be included in thisreview in detail. Briefl y, gold nanorods, like spherical goldnanoparticles and other noble metal nanoparticles, have theability to absorb light of varying wavelength due to the creationof plasmon resonances on their surface. These plasmons representcollective oscillations of the electrons surrounding thenanoparticles and the intensity and wavelength of these surfaceplasmon resonances (SPR) can be highly shape- and sizedependent. Due to the anisotropic shape of gold nanorods,they display two separate SPR bands corresponding to theirwidth and length known as the transverse (TSPR) and longitudinalplasmon bands (LSPR). The TSPR is located at just above500 nm while the LSPR varies widely according to the nanorodaspect ratio and the overall size. Through careful synthesis, itis possible to create single crystalline gold nanorods with anLSPR anywhere from the visible (600 nm) all the way into thenear IR (1100 + nm) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.The ability of nanorods to absorb near IR light makes them particularlywell-suited to biomedical applications since the absorbanceof the surrounding tissue in this region is low. This reviewwill not, however, focus on these applications as several excellentreviews have already been published on the topic. For nearly all applications, the ability to properly functionalizethe nanorod surface can determine the success or failureof the project. In general, the functionalization of gold nanorodscan be signifi cantly more challenging than the functionalizationof spherical particles, even through the well-knowngold-thiol chemistry, due to the unique surfactant capping of

as-synthesized nanorods. While spherical particles may be

directly thiol-coated during the synthesis or coated only with a

weakly-bound anion, gold nanorods are usually synthesized in

the presence cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), which

binds more strongly to the nanorod surface. Complete or partial

aggregation can easily occur during functionalization if the

CTAB structure around the rods is disturbed, leading to loss of

desired optical properties. Thus, general functionalization strategies

as well as specifi c examples pertaining to nanorod applications

will be discussed.

Although the goal of a particular application may be to create

individual nanorods, their assemblies can also be highly desirable

due to the modulation of their physical properties as they

are brought close together. This review will cover the signifi cant

progress that has been made on controlling nanorod assembly

in the past several years, which has allowed for the production of

interesting structures such as nanorod chains, rings, and threedimensional

supercrystals. Importantly, these assembly techniques

have found signifi cant application in sensing and detection

of a variety of analytes including environmental toxins 

and biomarkers.  Thus, detection modalities based on the

anisotropic properties of rods such as their surface-enhanced

Raman scattering (SERS) ability will be examined in detail.

 Synthesis

There are various methods to produce gold nanorods with different

structures. The fi rst class of synthetic techniques that will

be discussed are the various aqueous wet-chemical CTAB-mediated

synthetic procedures which have become the most popular

as originated by Murphy et al and El-Sayed et al. While all

of these techniques produce crystalline nanorods, they can be

subdivided into those that lead to rods with single-crystalline

or pentahedrally-twinned structure. This is an important distinction

as the purity, length-scale, and further manipulations

can depend highly on this difference. The second class of techniques

are those based on reduction of gold inside a template

of some sort, most often an anodized aluminum oxide (AAO)

membrane, which produces polycrystalline structures in limited

quantities. Finally, several methods exist to synthesize

nanorods in organic solvents which generally lead to much different

morphologies including ultrathin rods and wires.

Silver-Mediated Synthesis of Single-Crystalline Nanorods

 Electrochemical Synthesis

The first report of reasonably high quality gold nanorods used

an electrochemical approach which was the precursor of the

most common seed-mediated procedure.  Reported by

Wang and coworkers, this approach utilized a two-electrode

electrochemical cell in which the gold anode provided the gold

source for the reaction while the template for rod-growth was

a mixed surfactant system of CTAB and tetradodecylammonium

bromide (TDTAB). Small amounts of acetone and hexane

additives were also present and the entire setup was sonicated

throughout the reaction. The presence of a silver plate,which was theorized to produce silver ions in solution, led to

increased rod yield and length.  Nanorods were synthesized

with aspect ratios anywhere from 1 to 7 with a corresponding

longitudinal plasmon as high as 1050 nm with rod diameters of

about 10 nm. Although the exact mechanism was not known,

it was theorized that TDTAB was the rod-directing agent andthat growth may have occurred on the surface of the electrode,

with sonication responsible for freeing the rods into solution.

El-Sayed and coworkers carried out a crystallographic examination

of these rods and determined that the majority of the

rods were single-crystalline in nature and grew along the [001]

direction, the same structure as that created by silver-assisted

seed-mediated .

Drink Lemon Juice Instead of Pills If You Have One of These 8 Problems

Lemon juice is abundant in nutrients, among which flavonoids, which have powerful antioxidant properties. Antioxidants are also known to have anticancer effect.

A number of studies confirm that lemon juice is beneficial against diabetes, hypertension, fever, constipation, indigestion and other health issues. It also improves skin and hair quality and tooth health.

According to the American Urological Association, lemonade or lemon juice can effectively eliminate kidney stones by creating urinary citrate, which inhibits crystal formation

These 8 issues can be treated more effectively with lemon water than pills:

1. Weight Loss

The high amounts of pectin in lemon juice support weight loss according to recent studies. This fiber is extremely beneficial for increasing weight loss results.

2. Problems with skin

The antioxidants in lemon juice are great for removing blemishes, wrinkles, age spots and scars. They also cleanse your blood and improve your skin quality on the inside.

3. Detoxification

Lemon water is a powerful detoxifying agent.

4. Bowel Movements

Lemons are abundant in pectin fiber, which stimulates regular bowel movements thus keeping the colon clean. Pectin is also a strong antiseptic.

5. Imbalanced pH

A glass of warm lemon water in the morning restores pH balance in the body. Although lemons are acidic, they create alkaline gut environment once they’re ingested.

6. Digestive Issues

Lemon juice improves digestion by stimulating the production of bile.

7. Overgrowth of Bacteria

It prevents bacteria growth.

8. Inflammation & Pain

Lemon juice is highly beneficial for reducing inflammatory joint pain, particularly in the knees, as it dissolves uric acid. It’s especially suitable for the elderly. 

One Cup of This Beverage Before Bed Burns Belly Fat Like Miracle!!

There are various diets and exercises that promise amazing results, but usually that just don’t work.

Read this article where we are going to present you a recipe for miracle water. After 7 days of consumption, this water will help you lose 4 kg and will reduce your waist size to 4 inches.

It is important to mention that is very easy to prepare at your home.

The necessary ingredients are:

8 cups of filtered water

1 Lemon

1 Cucumber

Fresh ginger

Fresh mint leaves

Preparation:

Start with washing and cut the lemon into ideal halves. After that you should slice each slice and put into a bowl with water. Then you should peel the cucumber and cut it into circles. Put them with 8 – 12 fresh mint leaves into the water.

The next step is to peel the ginger and grate it into the mixture. At the end stir the mixture, cover it and place it into the fridge.

The next day your drink is ready for consuming .

You can drink it whenever you are thirsty and after one week you will notice the results.

Although it sounds unbelievably, you should try it. After one week you will lose 4 kilograms and everyone will notice the difference.

Enjoy it!

NASA Releases Plan Outlining Next Steps in the Journey to Mars

NASA is leading our nation and the world on a journey to Mars, and Thursday the agency released a detailed outline of that plan in its report, “NASA’s Journey to Mars: Pioneering Next Steps in Space Exploration.”

“NASA is closer to sending American astronauts to Mars than at any point in our history,” said NASA Administrator Charles Bolden. “Today, we are publishing additional details about our journey to Mars plan and how we are aligning all of our work in support of this goal. In the coming weeks, I look forward to continuing to discuss the details of our plan with members of Congress, as well as our commercial and our international and partners, many of whom will be attending the International Astronautical Congress next week.”

The journey to Mars crosses three thresholds, each with increasing challenges as humans move farther from Earth. NASA is managing these challenges by developing and demonstrating capabilities in incremental steps:

Earth Reliant exploration is focused on research aboard the International Space Station. From this world-class microgravity laboratory, we are testing technologies and advancing human health and performance research that will enable deep space, long duration missions.

In the Proving Ground, NASA will learn to conduct complex operations in a deep space environment that allows crews to return to Earth in a matter of days. Primarily operating in cislunar space—the volume of space around the moon featuring multiple possible stable staging orbits for future deep space missions—NASA will advance and validate capabilities required for humans to live and work at distances much farther away from our home planet, such as at Mars.

Earth Independent activities build on what we learn on the space station and in deep space to enable human missions to the Mars vicinity, possibly to low-Mars orbit or one of the Martian moons, and eventually the Martian surface. Future Mars missions will represent a collaborative effort between NASA and its partners—a global achievement that marks a transition in humanity’s expansion as we go to Mars to seek the potential for sustainable life beyond Earth.

“NASA’s strategy connects near-term activities and capability development to the journey to Mars and a future with a sustainable human presence in deep space,” said William Gerstenmaier, associate administrator for Human Exploration and Operations at NASA Headquarters. “This strategy charts a course toward horizon goals, while delivering near-term benefits, and defining a resilient architecture that can accommodate budgetary changes, political priorities, new scientific discoveries, technological breakthroughs, and evolving partnerships.”

NASA is charting new territory, and we will adapt to new scientific discoveries and new opportunities. Our current efforts are focused on pieces of the architecture that we know are needed. In parallel, we continue to refine an evolving architecture for the capabilities that require further investigation. These efforts will define the next two decades on the journey to Mars.

CHALLENGES FOR SPACE PIONEERS

Living and working in space require accepting risks—and the journey to Mars is worth the risks. A new and powerful space transportation system is key to the journey, but NASA also will need to learn new ways of operating in space, based on self-reliance and increased system reliability. We will use proving ground missions to validate transportation and habitation capabilities as well as new operational approaches to stay productive in space while reducing reliance on Earth.

We identify the technological and operational challenges in three categories: transportation, sending humans and cargo through space efficiently, safely, and reliably; working in space, enabling productive operations for crew and robotic systems; and staying healthy, developing habitation systems that provide safe, healthy, and sustainable human exploration. Bridging these three categories are the overarching logistical challenges facing crewed missions lasting up to 1,100 days and exploration campaigns that span decades.

STRATEGIC INVESTMENTS TO ADDRESS PIONEERING CHALLENGES

NASA is investing in powerful capabilities and state-of-the-art technologies that benefit both NASA and our industry partners while minimizing overall costs through innovative partnerships. Through our evolvable transportation infrastructure, ongoing spaceflight architecture studies, and rapid prototyping activities, we are developing resilient architecture concepts that focus on critical capabilities across a range of potential missions. We are investing in technologies that provide large returns, and maximizing flexibility and adaptability through commonality, modularity, and reusability.

On the space station, we are advancing human health and behavioral research for Mars-class missions. We are pushing the state-of-the-art life support systems, printing 3-D parts, and analyzing material handling techniques for in-situ resource utilization. The upcoming eighth SpaceX commercial resupply services mission will launch the Bigelow Expandable Activity Module, a capability demonstration for inflatable space habitats.

With the Space Launch System, Orion crewed spacecraft, and revitalized space launch complex, we are developing core transportation capabilities for the journey to Mars and ensuring continued access for our commercial crew and cargo partners to maintain operations and stimulate new economic activity in low-Earth orbit.  This secured U.S. commercial access to low-Earth orbit allows NASA to continue leveraging the station as a microgravity test bed while preparing for missions in the proving ground of deep space and beyond.

Through the Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM), we will demonstrate an advanced solar electric propulsion capability that will be a critical component of our journey to Mars. ARM will also provide an unprecedented opportunity for us to validate new spacewalk and sample handling techniques as astronauts investigate several tons of an asteroid boulder – potentially opening new scientific discoveries about the formation of our solar system and beginning of life on Earth

We are managing and directing the ground-based facilities and services provided by the Deep Space Network (DSN), Near Earth Network (NEN), and Space Network (SN) – critical communications capabilities that we continue to advance for human and robotic communication throughout the solar system.

Through our robotic emissaries, we have already been on and around Mars for 40 years, taking nearly every opportunity to send orbiters, landers, and rovers with increasingly complex experiments and sensing systems. These orbiters and rovers have returned vital data about the Martian environment, helping us understand what challenges we may face and resources we may encounter. The revolutionary Curiosity sky crane placed nearly one metric ton – about the size of a small car – safely on the surface of Mars, but we need to be able to land at least 10 times that weight with humans – and then be able to get them off the surface.

These challenges are solvable, and NASA and its partners are working on the solutions every day so we can answer some of humanity’s fundamental questions about life beyond Earth: Was Mars home to microbial life? Is it today? Could it be a safe home for humans one day? What can it teach us about life elsewhere in the cosmos or how life began on Earth? What can it teach us about Earth’s past, present and future?

The journey to Mars is an historic pioneering endeavor—a journey made possible by a sustained effort of science and exploration missions beyond low-Earth orbit with successively more capable technologies and partnerships.

The Gem Mining Industry In Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka has been famous from time immemorial for the great variety and abundance of gem minerals of extremely high quality and uniqueness, earned it the name Ratna Deepa meaning GemIsland. Nature in her bounty has chosen the bosom of Sri Lanka to enshrine some of  her rarest treasures.

 

Significant gem fields had been known from ancient times. Blue Sapphires, Cat’s Eyes, Alexandrites, Rubies, Star stones found embedded in layer of gravel and sand, in river beds, marshes, fields or accumulated at the foot of hills have made Sri Lanka the renowned island for gems. These precious stones perfected in the laboratory of nature lay hidden of countless ages, their luster undimmed, their value unrecognized.

Sri Lanka ranks with Myanmar, Brazil, South Africa and Thailand as one of the world’s most important gem bearing nations.  The story of Sri Lanka’s gems is as old as civilization itself.   Legends, myths and the occult have been associated with the long history of the island’s precious stones.   Gems are deeply embedded in the traditional beliefs and the religious life of the majority of  Sri Lankans.  Priceless gems are among the treasures kept in the relic chambers of  the great  Buddhist stupas in the island. 

The earth’s greatest concentration of gems in over 50 varieties is found within the country’s land area of approximately 25,000 square miles.   The Arabs called this the land Jazirat Kakut, which denotes the same meaning the Island of gems. The fame of her gems spread far and wide.  These priceless precious stones have adorned the crowns and thrones of royalty in many parts of the world

 Gem Mining Procedure

 Mining for gemstones is carried out on a cooperative basis. A number of miners form a group and share the costs of labour and profits from the sale of gemstones. This group is known as a Karuhavula. Its most important members are the investor and the miners. The investor finances the whole operation project up to the sorting stage. The miners decide on a suitable site, once a suitable site is chosen, miners excavate until they reach the gem bearing illama. A miner is able to judge the depth of the illama by inserting a steel rod into the earth until it reaches the layer below the illama, called the malava. Although the malava is found beneath the illama, there is a possibility of finding another layer of illama beneath the malava. The mine owner, being the head of a mine, is responsible for various legal activities and requirements. The organization and operation of a mine requires particular skills and some considerable experience of the industry. Mine owners tend to have been involved in gem mining for a significant period of time and the majority of them were middle aged.

Gem Mining Methods

There are 2 common mining methods. One is pitting: Pitting shafts are made to reach levels from 10 to 12 feet of pay gravel exist. Tunnels are made to collect the pay gravel around the base. Walls are structured with timber species that resist water rot and fern. Pits are generally confined to marshy terrain and paddy lands. Flooding is the main hazard in pit mining and the workers of the present day generally use water pumps to dewater.

The other is riverbed mining: Gems are also mined from riverbed material by using suction pumps for extraction of riverbed gravel for gems. Much harm can be done to riverbank stability by removal of gravel thus undermining the banks because there is no control of the operation.

Mining Methods Extraction

The mining methods used inSri Lanka are specifically developed and suited to the terrain. Compared to other gem producing countries some of the techniques are both simple and apparently obsolete. However, these methods are effective, adequately efficient and generally safe. Moreover the initial capital cost of mining operations is generally very low which permits greater involvement by relatively poor rural inhabitants. 

The Sri Lankan government has in fact banned the use of heavy, mechanized mining methods in gem mining. This not only prevents rapid, destructive depletion of an irreplaceable resource but also maintains an alternative source of revenue for much of the rural population who otherwise would be dependent almost entirely on agriculture.

                                                                                                         Deep Gem Pit view

Excavation of a pit is done usually by manual labour. In the first, stage, miners remove the non-gem bearing material, often soil, sand and gravel. This material is taken out of the pit and sorted and stored to be used later to fill in the hole. If the pit is shallow, the soil is removed with the miners standing at different levels of the pit and baskets being passed by hand to hand. If the pit is deep a pulley system is used. The illama is also removed in the same manner. In some instances the illama is excavated horizontally thereby creating a tunnel called a donava. These can extend from 6 to 9 metres form the shaft.

                                                                                                     

A temporary shed is made above the gem pit to protect the miners from the heat. Planks and logs are used to support the walls of the pit. While timber is usually used for this purpose, as prices increase for materials, some miners more use alternatives such as steel plates.  

Gempits sometimes suffer from accumulated water when the pit is dug and therefore mines are equipped with pumps to remove this water.

Time taken to mine is usually determined by the amount of illama found. Mining can range from a couple of days to a couple of years.

Washing Stage

Nambuwa

After being thoroughly washed, the contents of the basket, called the nambuva, is examined for gemstones. The basket is tilted at an angle allowing the sunlight to fall on the contents. The examiner usually determines if a stone is valuable by the colour, variation of colour, transparency form or shape. The same basket is examined many times by different people. This is the most important stage of the mining and done by the most experienced hands.

As time passed, new mining methods were discovered which did not hamper the cultivation of crops and the farmlands remained untouched. With advanced technology a vertical shaft was protruded until it reached the illiam. Feeder tunnels were built and were supported by timbers of wood and bamboo. The miners dug the tunnels and loaded their knapsacks with the precious gravel as made their way to the surface. Pumps operated full-time to keep the tunnels water free. The process of washing, screening and sorting took place on the surface, once the miner climbed up.

River Dredging

The gemstones erode from mineral rich rocks and eventually get washed down the rivers. Finding the right spot in the river is the tricky bit as strong currents sweep away even the heaviest gems and slow waters means sifting through a lot of unwanted debris.

Perhaps the simplest type of mine workings is the river dredging which are developed around the exploitation of present day stream gravels and illam exposed during down cutting and erosion by the river or stream. They also sometimes build dams to help them trap and sort the gemstones before they do the sieving. In their simplest form the dredging operation involves raking up a the river gravel or illam into a shallow pile using a long handled iron rake-like tool known locally as a ˜mammoty, and letting the river wash away the fines.  The resulting coarse fraction is then picked over by workers to extract the gem minerals. Often riffles, small dams and other barriers are built up on the riverbed to control the current and direct it into riverbanks or accumulations of gravel to assist in winnowing out the fine sediment and washing the gravels illegal dredging of riverbed gravels for gems.

 The gravel bar is an artificial construction and such features significantly modify the flow of the river resulting in damage to riverbanks and seriously affecting water supply. In some instances, particularly where the river is too deep to permit traditional dredging methods bottom sediment is dredged into weighted baskets pulled across the riverbed on ropes. The resulting basket of sediment is then processed on the riverbank.  River dredging is carried out both legally and illegally and if not closely controlled has significant negative environmental impact as well as health and safety implications for the workforce. River gravels are dug out using a hoe and washed in-situ. Unwanted material is simply discarded with fine-grained mud and silts held in suspension in the water.

Mine Workers

(Credit to fine water Gems for the Mining workers Pictures)

The majority of gem mining inSri Lankais carried out within communities by the local population.  It is pre-dominantly a low-technology labor intensive industry carried out as part of the communities a normal cycle of activities, usually when the agricultural workload is at a minimum and when the paddy fields are not producing crops. InSri Lankagem mining is solely a male occupation.

The numbers of staff employed by owners varied depending on the type of operation carried out with 5-6 people employed in shallow mines, 8-12 in deep mines and around 7 in river dredging. Total numbers employed tended to average between 11- 16 depending on the number of mines owned. The length of time of involvement in the industry also varied but the majority of owners had worked in the industry for at least 6 years with some having worked up to 30 years in the business. Most of them took up mining as it was shown to be profitable and several had progressed to become mine owners after working as gem miners themselves, using what they had earned to invest in their own mines. 

Gem mining is a physically demanding and labour intensive occupation and which is restricted to the male population inSri Lanka. Mine workers cover a wide range of ages from 18-50 with a relatively even distribution throughout this range. No children below the age of 18 are allowed to work in gem mining.

 Mine workers enter into a verbal agreement with a mine owner who is generally someone well known to the owner and local to the area. 70% of miners work in the industry because there is either no alternative employment or because they have specialist skills in the industry. Only a small proportion (20%) got involved with mining in anticipation of making high profits. Mineworkers tend to stay in the industry for several years with the greatest majority having worked in mining for 11-20 years. 

During any one year 80% of workers are employed for 7-10 months in mining, particularly in the more complex and labour intensive deep mines. Every mine has two leading mine workers nominated as foremen. They are generally experienced workers who possess a wide knowledge. It is their duty to allocate duties to the workers and advise them. Mine workers are paid a weekly allowance for their labour. Along with the weekly allowance miners are supported with meals at mines. No other form of payment is made because miners are entitled to a share of the profits from the mine. However, every mineworker expressed the view that the living allowance that they receive was not at all sufficient to cover their needs. Apart from the weekly allowance, a mineworker is entitled to about 3 % of the gem income from a mine. Since a mineworker is considered as a shareholder he is not supposed to work a specific number of hours as a waged earner. They tend to work at a stretch from morning till evening and at times they have to work late hours in order to complete certain work.   They also tend not to have holiday allowances because once a mine is opened the work has to be continued non-stop.  If a miner requires a period of absence due to illness or for any other reason he has to send another person to work on his behalf.

River miners are generally much poorer than the pit miners. The pickings are sparse. The work is long, tedious and gruelling and the miners have many mouths to feed. When they can’t find any gemstones, they pick fruit such as jackfruit from trees to survive on.

 

 

Customs and Astrological Background in Gem mining

Even today, astrology and offering to placate the gods are observed before commencing mining as it is evident that mining needs a lot of luck. Prior to beginning the mining, miners observe traditional customs by lighting an oil lamp placed inside a decoration or tender coconut leaves by the mine site.

An astrologer determines the time and date for commencement of work. Religious rituals include offerings made to the Bahiravaya who is the spirit or guardian in charge of the wealth hidden under the earth. Offerings are also made to the patron god of the region, for example, in Ratnapura, an area known for its abundance of gems; offerings would be made to the god Saman.

To be a gemstone miner inSri Lanka, a person must have the characteristics of a fortune seeker because mining is an arduous task where success is not guaranteed. Often miners work by the light of flickering candle metres below the earth. Miners may find a fortune in a piece of rough blue stone, hidden in the earth and obscured by mud, or may have to go hungry with no reward and fewer funds than they started out with.

 Sri Lanka Gem Mining History 

The secret of the sustenance of the gem mining industry for well over 2500 years rests on the unique traditional mining methods and the mining industry is one of the oldest cooperative work systems in the country.

According to geological history, gemstones were discovered in this charming island not prior to 500 B.C. During this period the Buddhists who traveled toSri LankafromNorthern Indiafound some precious gems while taking their bath in the streams and rivers of this island. The erosion of the rocks resulted to elongated placer deposits laden with precious gemstones in the beds of the flowing streams in the valleys which were located in the lower altitudes. The monks set these attractive colorful stones in their rings and other forms of jewellery like bracelets and armlets frequently worn during those days. During the course of their travels they traded these stones in the different markets ofAsiaandEurope. In this manner the gemstones reached new destinations in different parts of the globe.

References toSri Lanka’s precious stones are found in several historical records onSri Lanka.   Among them are Record of the Buddhist Countries (around A.D. 412) by the Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-hsien and The Historic Tragedy of theIslandofCeylon(A.D. 1685) by Portuguese Army Captain Joao Ribeiro.

Fa-hsien Writes: “…there is a district of about 10 square li which produces the mani jewel.  The king has posted guards here, and takes a levy of three tenths of the jewels that are found.’’

Describing Sri Lanka’s gems Capt. Ribeiro states: “…Here are all the valleys and mountains that are full of them and are obtained with little trouble; such as rubies, the finest that can be found anywhere within our discoveries, all in separate crystals; sapphires, topazes (some of them of extraordinary size) cat’s eyes… garnets, beryls, jacinths, tourmalines and various others, which are held in no account there, since they are the stones with which the river beds are furnished.’’

Marco Polo wrote of his visit in 1292: “I want you to understand that theislandofCeylonis, for its size, the finest island in the world, and from its streams comes rubies, sapphires, topazes, amethyst and garnet.” Little has changed since Marco Polo’s time except thatSri Lankafaces overpopulation and a faltering economy.

The island was known in the ancient world as Taprobane (copper colored in Greek). Native Veddahs, bathing in smooth flowing streams, noticed colored pebbles scattered in sandy bottoms. It was not until 500 B.C. that conquering Buddhists from northernIndiaalso discovered gems in the rivers and began to set rough stones into crude jewelry.

They bartered stones with traders from abroad and eventually the treasures found their way to the marketplaces ofAsiaandEurope. Ancient Greek and Chinese historians referred to the beautiful gems ofCeylon, and King Solomon reportedly wooed the Queen of Sheba with Ceylonese precious stones.

The origin of the term mani jewel is manikya or menik – the Sinhala and Sanskrit words for gems.   The district cited here is believed to be Ratnapura (city of gems) famed for precious stones throughout history.   The Ratnapura basin is considered the traditional area for gemstones. 

Basement Geology of Sri Lanka

Geologically about 90% of the Sri Lankan basement is composed of highly metamorphosed Precambrian rocks. These rocks vary in composition and metamorphic grade. Pegmatites, mafic dykes are other magmatic rocks are also found in the Sri Lankan basement. The north-western area and a small area of the south-western coastline have Miocene limestone. Small isolated sedimentary sandstone formations belonging to the Jurassic period are found at Andigama and Tabbowa. Red earth, Ratnapura bed, coral reefs, beach sand, beach rocks and alluvium can be considered as Quaternary deposits belonging to Pleistocene and recent epochs. Recent studies have subdivided these rocks inSri Lankainto three main lithotectonic units based on lithology and chronologic metamorphic history .

Sri Lankahas a unique combination of topography and climate, which has resulted in the formation of a valuable non-renewable natural resource in the form of gem and semi-precious stones.  The gem deposits ofSri Lankacontain a wide range of gem and semi-precious minerals some varieties of which are unique to the island and some that are particularly rare.  It is probable that many of the rarer, more valuable gem minerals are not recognized by the gem miners and are overlooked during sorting. 

The dominant gem mineral is corundum, in particularly the great variety of sapphires, rubies and geuda.  The majority of gem deposits are secondary alluvial gravels and contain a range of gem minerals with local and regional variations in relative abundance.

The Gem-bearing Areas

Approximately 25 percent of the island is estimated to be gem bearing. Nearly nine-tenths of the island is underlain by rocks of the Precambrian age, which is divided in to groups: The Highland South-western group, The Vijayan Complex and Wanni Complex.

Highland South Western Complex (HSWC)

Former Highland series and south-western group (Cooray 1962; 1984) has been included together and named asHighlandSouth-western Complex (HSWC). About 50% of the Precambrian basement ofSri Lankabelong to this unit. Deposition of supracrustal rocks took place at about 2000Ma years ago. The HSWC had undergone regional granulite grade metamorphism at 7500-9000 C temperatures and 8.5-7.5 K.bar pressures. This event took place at about 650-550 Ma years ago (Kroner et. al. 1991). The HSWC is composed of meta-sedimentary rocks such as quartzite, marbles, calc-silicates and garnet sillimanite-gneisses, meta-volcanic suits, mafic to granitic granitoid intrusives and mafic dykes.

Vijayan Complex

The vijayan complex is exposed in eastern and southernSri Lanka. The depositional age of supracrustal rocks of Vijayan complex is around 1100Ma. It has been subjected to amphibolite grade metamorphism around 456-591Ma. The vijayan basement is composed mainly of granitoid gneisses (Tonalite to Leucogranite) and migmatites. Metasedimentary rocks are found in minor amounts as xenoliths. In contrast to Wanni complex horndblend bearing calc-alkaline plutonic rocks are common in this unit (Kroner et. al. 1991).

Wanni Complex

The former West Vijayan Complex (Cooray 1962; 1984) has been re named as the Wanni complex by Kroner et. al.. (1991). The wanni complex also has been subjected to the same Granulite grade metamorphism of HSWC. However its supracrustal rock deposition was simultaneous to the Vijayan complex (1100 Ma). Paleo-metamorphic pressures of the Vijayan complex are lower than that of HSWC.

The Kadugannawa Complex (KC) is situated within the HSWC, aroundKandyand Peradeniya. This complex has zircon dates (660Ma-550Ma) and Nd model ages (1100ma) comparable to the Wanni complex (Kroner et. al., 1991).

Parts of the Kadugannawa complex have experienced granulite grade metamorphism (Schenk et. al., 1991). Evidence for a retrogressive event has also been preserved at some locations.  The KC is composed of hornblende – biotite and quartzo – feldspathic gneisses, minor amphibolites and anorthosite and supracrustal rocks.  There is no evidence to show that the KC is a nappe structure of the Wanni complex. Therefore it is recognized as a differentiated suite of calc-alkaline intrusive rocks intruded into rocks of the HSWC around 890-1000Ma ago.  Most gem-bearing areas ofSri Lankaare underlain by the granulite grade metamorphosed Highland Complex.  Some gem occurrences, such as in the Okkampitiya gem fields, are found outside the Highland Complex.  However it is thought that the gems originated in the Highland Complex and were later transported by rivers and deposited in this area.

Most gemstone minerals are found in theHighlandgroup, which is the oldest rock formation .A broad belt that cuts across the centre of this pear shaped island. This belt has its edges in the shape of a trough and is bordered by mountain peaks. The trough which has components of crystalline metamorphosed rock along with schist, marble, pegmatite and quartzite deposits erodes and results in the formation of gemstones along the beds of rivers and streams in the valleys through which they flow.

The gem-bearing belt is approximately 80 miles in length and 20 miles in width and lies south-west of the central hills, as well as other pockets of gem producing areas.

The areas of Ratnapura, Pelmadulla, Balangoda, Eheliyagoda, Kalawana and Nivitigala in theSabaragamuwaProvinceconsist of densely concentrated deposits of gem materials as compared to most of the other deposits in the country. The most noteworthy gem bearing deposits next to Ratnapura and other areas in theSabargamuwaProvinceare located in and around Elehera in Polonnaruwa District in theNorthCentralProvince. In addition to the aforementioned gem fields there are a number of other notable gem deposits located in Okkampitiya, Kataragama, Matale, Meetiyagoda, Kolonne, Yakkalamulla and Buttala areas.